Image distance and object distance.
With respect to the principal planes of a lens, the image-to-lens and
object-to-lens distances, as predicted by the lens equation in geometrical
optics. See also Lens equation.

Immunofluorescence microscopy. A mode
of fluorescence microscopy in which a certain molecular species in a specimen
is labeled with a specific fluorescent antibody. Fluorescence emission from
excited antibodies is collected by the objective lens to form an image of the
specimen. Antibodies can be made fluorescent by labeling them directly with a
fluorescent dye (direct immunofluorescence) or with a second fluorescent
antibody that recognizes epitopes on the primary antibody (indirect
immunofluorescence).

Incandescent lamp. A bulb containing an
inert gas and metal filament that emits photons as the filament becomes excited
during passage of electric current. The spectrum of visible wavelengths emitted
by the filament shifts to increasingly shorter wavelengths as the amount of
excitation is increased. The output of incandescent lamps is very high at red
and infrared wavelengths.

Infinity corrected optics. The latest
optical design for microscope objective lenses in which the specimen is placed
at the focal length of the lens. Used by itself, the image rays emerge from the
lens parallel to the optic axis and the image plane is located at infinity. In
practice, a tube lens or Telan lens located in the body of the microscope acts
together with the objective to form an image in the real intermediate image
plane. This optical design relaxes constraints on the manufacture of the
objective lens itself and allows for placement of bulky accessory equipment
such as fluorescence filter cubes in the space between the objective and the
tube lens.

Intensity of light. Qualitatively, the
brightness or flux of light energy perceived by the eye. By universal
agreement, the term intensity, meaning the flow of energy per unit area per
unit time, is being replaced by the word irradiance, a radiometric term
indicating the average energy (photon flux) per unit area per unit time, or
watts/meter2. As a term describing the strength of light, intensity is
proportional to the square of the amplitude of an electromagnetic wave.

Interference. The sum of two or more
interacting electromagnetic waves. Two waves can interfere only if a component
of the E vector of one wave vibrates in the plane of the other wave. Resultant
waves with amplitudes greater or less than the constituent waves are said to
represent constructive and destructive interference, respectively.

Interference color. The color that
results from removal of a band of visible wavelengths from a source of white
light.

Interference filter. A filter made from
alternating layers of different dielectric materials or layers of a dielectric
material and thin metal film that transmits a specific band of wavelengths. The
spacings between the layers of one-quarter or one-half wavelength allow constructive
interference and reinforce propagation through the filter of a particular
wavelength λ. All other wavelengths give destructive interference and are
absorbed or reflected and do not propagate through the filter.

Ion arc lamp. Lamps containing an ionized
gas or plasma between two electrodes that radiates visible wavelengths when
excited by an electric current. Arc lamps used in light microscopy usually
contain mercury vapor or xenon gas.

Irradiance of light. The
radiometrically correct term for light intensity. Irradiance is the radiant
flux incident per surface unit area and is given as watts/meter2. Irradiance is
a measure of the concentration of power.

Isotropic. In describing the optical
properties of an object or propagation medium, having identical properties in
different directions.

Jablonski diagram. A diagram showing
the energy levels occupied by an excited electron in an atom or molecule as
steps on a vertical ladder. Singlet and triplet excited states are shown
separately as ladders standing next to each other.

Koehler illumination. The principal
method for illuminating specimens in the light microscope, whereby a collector
lens near the light source is used to focus an image of the light source in the
front aperture of the condenser. The microscope condenser  is focused to position the conjugate image of
the light source in the back focal plane (diffraction plane) of the objective
lens. The method provides bright, even illumination across the diameter of the
specimen.

Lens equation. In geometrical optics,
the equation 1/f 1/a  1/b describing the
relationship between the object distance a and the image distance b for a lens
of focal length f.

Light microscope. A microscope
employing light as an analytic probe and optics based on glass lenses to
produce a magnified image of an object specimen.

Linearly polarized light. A beam of
light in which the E vectors of the constituent waves vibrate in planes that
are mutually parallel. Linearly polarized light need not be coherent or
monochromatic.

Long-pass filter. A colored glass or
interference filter that transmits (passes) long wavelengths and blocks short
ones.

Long working distance lens. An
objective lens having a working distance many times greater than that of a
conventional objective lens of the same magnification. A long working distance
lens is sometimes easier to employ and focus, can look deeper into transparent
specimens, and allows the operator greater working space for employing
micropipettes or other equipment in the vicinity of the object. However, the NA
and resolution are less than those for conventional lenses of comparable
magnification.

Lumen. A unit of luminous flux equal to
the flux through a unit solid angle (steradian) from a uniform point source of
1 candle intensity.

Lux. A unit of illumination equal to 1
lumen per square meter.

Modulation contrast microscopy (MCM). A
mode of light microscope optics in which a transparent phase object is made
visible by providing unilateral oblique illumination and employing a mask in
the back aperture of the objective lens that blocks one sideband of diffracted
light and partially attenuates the 0th-order undeviated rays. In both MCM and
DIC optics, brightly illuminated and shadowed edges in the three-dimensional
relief-like image correspond to optical path gradients (phase gradients) in the
specimen. Although resolution and detection sensitivity are somewhat reduced
compared with DIC, the MCM system produces superior images at low
magnifications, allows optical sectioning, and lets you examine cells on
birefringent plastic dishes.

Monochromatic. In theory, light
composed of just one wavelength, but in practice, light that is composed of a
narrow band of wavelengths. Owing to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, true
monochromatic light does not exist in nature. Even the monochromatic emission
from a laser or an excited atomic source has a measurable bandwidth. Therefore,
while the light produced by a narrow bandpass interference filter is called
monochromatic, this is just an approximation.

Multi-immersion objective lens. An
objective lens whose spherical aberration is corrected for use by immersion in
media of various refractive indices, including water, glycerin, and oil. A
focusable lens element used to minimize spherical aberration is adjusted by
rotating a focus ring on the barrel of the objective.

Multiple fluorescence filter set. A
filter set for simultaneous viewing or photography of multiple fluorescent
signals. The transmission profile of each filter in the set contains multiple
peaks and troughs for the reflection and transmission of the appropriate
excitation and emission wavelengths as in a conventional single-fluorochrome
filter set. Because of constraints on the widths of bandwidths, the steepness
of transmission profiles, and the inability to reject certain wavelengths, the
performance is somewhat less than that of individual filter sets for specific
fluorochromes.

Negative colors. Colors resulting from
the removal of a certain band of visible wavelengths. Thus, white light minus
blue gives the negative color yellow, because simultaneous stimulation of red
and green cone cells results in this color perception. Similarly, the mixture
of cyan pigment (absorbs red wavelengths) and yellow pigment (absorbs blue
wavelengths) gives green, because green is the only reflected wavelength in the
pigment mixture.

Negative lens. A lens that diverges a
beam of parallel incident rays. A simple negative lens is thinner in the middle
than at the periphery and has at least one concave surface. It does not form a
real image, and when held in front of the eye, it reduces or demagnifies.

Negative phase contrast. In phase
contrast optics, the term applies to systems employing a negative phase plate
that retards the background 0th-order light by /4 relative to the diffracted
waves. Since the diffracted light from an object is retarded /4 relative to the
phase of the incident light, the total amount of phase shift between background
and diffracted waves is 0 and interference is constructive, causing objects to
appear bright against a gray background.

Neutral density (ND) filter. A light-attenuating
filter that reduces equally the amplitudes of all wavelengths across the
visible spectrum. The glass substrate contains light-absorbing colloids or is
coated on one surface with a thin metal film to reduce transmission. Neutral
density filters are labeled according to their absorbance or fractional
transmission.

Nipkow disk. In confocal microscopy, a
thin opaque disk with thousands of minute pinholes, which when rotated at high
speed provides parallel scanning of the specimen with thousands of minute
diffraction-limited spots. The return fluorescence emission is refocused at the
same pinhole in the disk, which provides the same function in rejecting
out-of-focus light as does a single pinhole in a conventional confocal
microscope. Nipkow disk confocal microscopes produce a real image that can be
inspected visually or recorded on a high-resolution CCD camera, whereas images
of single-spot scanning microscopes are reconstructed from signals from a PMT
and are displayed on a computer monitor.

Numerical aperture (NA). The parameter
describing the angular aperture of objective and condenser lenses. NA is
defined as n sin, where n is the refractive index of the medium between the
object and the lens, and , the angle of light collection, is the apparent half-angle
subtended by the front aperture of the lens as seen from a point in the
specimen plane.

Objective lens. The image-forming lens
of the microscope responsible for forming the real intermediate image located
in the front apertures of the eyepieces.

Optical path length. In wave optics, a
measure of the time or distance (measured in wavelengths) defining the path
taken by a wave between two points. Optical path length is defined as n  t, where n is the refractive index and t
indicates the thickness or geometrical distance. A complex optical path
composed of multiple domains of different refractive index and thickness is
given as  n1t1  n2t2  .
. . niti.

Optical path length difference. The
difference in the optical path lengths of two waves that experience refractive
index domains of different value and thickness. In interference optics,
differences in optical path length determine the relative phase shift and thus
the degree of interference between 0th-order and higher-order diffracted waves
that have their origins in a point in the object.

Optovar. A built-in magnification
booster lens that can be rotated into the optical path to further increase the
magnification provided by the objective by a small amount.

Ordinary ray or O ray. In polarization
optics, the member of a ray pair that obeys normal laws of refraction and whose
velocity remains constant in different directions during transmission through a
birefringent medium. See also Extraordinary ray.

Paraboloid condenser. A high numerical
aperture condenser for dark-field microscopy having a reflective surface that
is a segment of a figure of revolution of a parabola. The steeply pitched
illumination cone produced by the condenser is suitable for darkfield
examination with high-power oil immersion objectives.

Parfocal. The property of having the
same distance between the specimen and the objective turret of the microscope.
With parfocal lenses, one can focus an object with one lens and then switch to
another lens without having to readjust the focus dial of the microscope.

Particle wave. In phase contrast and
other modes of interference microscopy, the wave (P wave) that results from
interference between diffracted and surround waves in the image plane, and
whose amplitude is different from that of the surrounding background, allowing
it to be perceived by the eye. See also Diffracted wave and Surround wave.

Phase contrast microscopy. A form of
interference microscopy that transforms differences in optical path in an
object to differences in amplitude in the image, making transparent phase
objects appear as though they had been stained. Surround and diffracted rays
from the specimen occupy different locations in the diffraction plane at the
back aperture of the objective lens where their phases are differentially
manipulated in order to generate a contrast image. Two special pieces of
equipment are required: a condenser annulus and a modified objective lens
containing a phase plate. Because the method is dependent on diffraction and
scattering, phase contrast optics differentially enhance the visibility of
small particles, filaments, and the edges of extended objects. The technique
allows for examination of fine details in transparent specimens such as live
cells.

Phase gradient. In interference
microscopy, the gradient of phase shifts in an image corresponding to optical
path differences in the object.

Phase object. Objects that shift the
phase of light as opposed to those that absorb light (amplitude objects) as the
basis for image formation. See also Amplitude object.

Phase plate. In phase contrast
microscopy, a transparent plate with a semitransparent raised or depressed
circular annulus located at the rear focal plane of a phase contrast objective.
The annulus reduces the amplitude of background (0th order) waves and advances
or retards the phase of the 0th-order component relative to diffracted waves.
Its action is responsible for the phase contrast interference image.

Phosphorescence: The relatively slow (9
s) emission of photons after excitation of a material by light or other
radiation source.

Polar: The common term applied to a
sheet of linear polarizing film (dichroic filter or Polaroid filter) and
particularly to its use as a polarizer or analyzer in producing and analyzing
polarized light.

Polarizability. In polarization optics,
a property describing the strength of interaction of light with molecules in a
manner that depends on the orientation of atomic bonds. Light waves interact
more strongly with molecules when their E vectors are oriented parallel to the
axis defining light-deformable (polarizable) covalent bonds such as the axes of
long-chain hydrocarbon polymers like polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose, and
collagen. This geometry is supported when an incident light ray is
perpendicular to the long axis of the polymer. Interaction of light with
molecules along their polarizable axis retards wave propagation and accounts
for the direction-dependent variability in their refractive index, a property
known as birefringence.

Polarization cross. In polarization
microscopy, the appearance of a dark upright cross in the back aperture of the
objective lens under conditions of extinction with two crossed polars. Ideally,
the back aperture is uniformly dark under this condition, but the
depolarization of light by the curved lens surfaces of the condenser and
objective lenses causes brightenings in four quadrants and hence the appearance
of a cross.

Polarization microscopy. A mode of
light microscopy based on the unique ability of polarized light to interact
with polarizable bonds of ordered molecules in a directionsensitive manner.
Perturbations to waves of polarized light from aligned molecules in an object
result in phase retardations between sampling beams, which in turn allow
interference-dependent changes in amplitude in the image plane. Typically the
microscope contains a polarizer and analyzer, and a retardation plate or
compensator.  Image formation depends
critically on the existence of ordered molecular arrangements and a property
known as double refraction or birefringence.

Polarized light. Light waves whose E
vectors vibrate in plane-parallel orientation at any point along the axis of
propagation. Polarized light can be linearly polarized (vibrations at all
locations are plane parallel) or elliptically or circularly polarized
(vibration axis varies depending on location along the propagation axis).
Polarized light need not be monochromatic or coherent.

Polarizer. A device that receives
random light and transmits linearly polarized light. In microscopy, polarizers
are made from sheets of oriented dichroic molecules (Polaroid filter) or from
slabs of birefringent crystalline materials.

Positive colors. Colors that result
from mixing different wavelengths of light. The equal mixture of red and green
wavelengths results in the perception of yellow, a positive color.

Positive lens. A lens that converges a
beam of parallel incident rays. A simple positive lens is thicker in the middle
than at the periphery, and has at least one convex surface. A positive lens
forms a real image and enlarges or magnifies when held in front of the eye.

Positive phase contrast. In phase
contrast optics, the term applies to systems employing a positive phase plate
that advances the background wave by /4 relative to the diffracted wave. Since
the diffracted light from an object is retarded /4 relative to the phase of the
incident light, the total phase shift between background and diffracted waves
is /2 and interference is destructive, causing objects to appear dark against a
gray background.

Principal plane. For a simple thin
lens, the plane within the lens and perpendicular to the optic axis from which
the focal length is determined. Thick simple lenses have two principal planes
separated by an intervening distance. Complex compound lenses may have multiple
principal planes.

Rayleigh criterion for spatial resolution.
The criterion commonly used to define spatial resolution in a lens-based imaging
device. Two point sources of light are considered to be just barely resolved
when the diffraction spot image of one point lies in the first-order minimum of
the diffraction pattern of the second point. In microscopy, the resolution
limit d is defined, d m/1.22 λ/(NAobjective 
NAcondenser), where λ is the wavelength of light and NA is the numerical
aperture of the objective lens and of the condenser.

Real image. An image that can be viewed
when projected on a screen or recorded on a piece of film.

Real intermediate image. The real image
focused by the objective lens in the vicinity of the oculars of the microscope.

Refraction. The change in direction of
propagation (bending) experienced by a beam of light that passes from a medium
of one refractive index into another medium of different refractive index when
the direction of propagation is not perpendicular to the interface of the
second medium.

Refractive index ellipsoid and wavefront
ellipsoid. An ellipsoid is the figure of revolution of an ellipse. When
rotated about its major axis, the surface of the ellipsoid is used to describe
the surface wavefront locations of E waves propagating outward from a central
point through a birefringent material. The same kind of figure is used to
describe the orientation and magnitude of the two extreme refractive index
values that exist in birefringent uniaxial crystals and ordered biological
materials.

Relative retardation. In polarization
optics, the relative shift in phase between two waves expressed in fractions of
a wavelength.

Relay lens. An intermediate magnifying
lens in an imaging system placed between the objective and the real
intermediate image. In video, so-called TV lenses increase the magnification of
the image projected on the camera 2- to 8-fold.

Short-pass filter. A colored-glass or
interference filter that transmits (passes) short wavelengths and blocks long
ones.

Simple lens. A lens consisting of a
single lens element and distinct from a compound lens having multiple lens
elements.

Spatial filter. A filter that
selectively manipulates a location in an image such as an aperture in a field
plane of a microscope or a sharpening or blurring filter in image processing.

Spatial frequency. The reciprocal of
the distance between two objects (periods/ distance).

Spatial frequency filter. A filter that
selectively manipulates a location in the diffraction plane in a microscope
(aperture plane masks in modulation contrast microscopy) or a mask applied to
Fourier transforms to manipulate low and high spatial frequency information in
image processing.

Spatial resolution. The resolution of
component features in an image. In optical systems, resolution is directly
proportional to the wavelength and inversely proportional to the angular
aperture. The practical limits on wavelength and angular aperture determine the
limit of spatial resolution, which is approximately one-half the wavelength of
light.

Spectral range. The range of
wavelengths, or bandwidth, under consideration.

Spherical aberration. A lens aberration
typical of lenses with spherical surfaces that causes paraxial rays incident on
the center and periphery of a lens to be focused at different locations in the
image plane. The degree of aberration increases with the decreasing focal ratio
of the lens. The aberration can be corrected in simple lenses by creating
aspherical surfaces.

Stokes shift. The distance in
nanometers between the peak excitation and peak emission wavelengths of a
fluorescent dye.

Thin lens. A lens whose thickness is
small compared to its focal length. A line through the center of the lens (a
plane representing the two coincident principal planes of the lens) provides a
reasonably accurate reference plane for refraction and object and lens distance
measurements. Lenses are assumed to be thin when demonstrating the principles
of graphical ray tracing.

Tube lens or Telan lens. An auxiliary
lens in the body of the microscope, which in conjunction with an infinity focus
objective lens forms the real intermediate image. The Telan lens provides some
of the correction for chromatic aberration, which lessens constraints on the
manufacture of the objective lens.

Uniaxial crystal. A birefringent
crystal characterized by having a single optic axis.

Virtual image. An image that can be
perceived by the eye or imaged by a converging lens, but that cannot be focused
on screen or recorded on film as can be done for a real image. The image perceived
by the eye when looking in a microscope is a virtual image.

Wavelength. The distance of one beat
cycle of an electromagnetic wave. Also, the distance between two successive
points at which the phase is the same on a periodic wave. The wavelength of
light is designated λ and is given in nanometers.

Wollaston prism. In interference
microscopy, a beam splitter made of two wedgeshaped slabs of birefringent
crystal such as quartz. In differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy,
specimens are probed by pairs of closely spaced rays of linearly polarized
light that are generated by a Wollaston prism acting as a beam splitter. An
important feature of the prism is its interference plane, which lies inside the
prism (outside the prism in the case of modified Wollaston prism designs).

Working distance. The space between the
front lens surface of the objective lens and the coverslip. Lenses with high
NAs typically have short working distances (60–100 micro m). Lenses with longer
working distances allow you to obtain focused views deep within a specimen. 

Diffraction grating. A transparent or
reflective substrate containing an array of parallel lines having the form of
alternating grooves and ridges with spacings close to the wavelength of light.
Light that is reflected by or transmitted through such a grating becomes
strongly diffracted. Depending on the geometry of illumination and wavelength, a
grating can generate color spectra and patterns of diffraction spots.

Diffraction plane. One of the aperture
planes of the light microscope containing the focused diffraction image of the
object. Under conditions of Koehler illumination, the diffraction plane is
located in or near the back focal plane of the objective lens.

Distortion. An aberration of lenses,
where the magnification factor describing an image varies continuously between
the central and peripheral portions of the image. Depending on whether the
magnification is greater at the center or at the periphery, the distortion can
be of the barrel or the pincushion type, respectively.

Double refraction. In polarization
optics, the splitting of light into distinct O and E rays in a birefringent
material. When a birefringent crystal of calcite is placed on a page  of printed words, the effects of double
refraction are clearly observed as an overlapping, double image of the text.

Emission filter. In fluorescence
microscopy, the final element in a fluorescence filter cube, which transmits
fluorescence emission wavelengths while blocking residual excitation
wavelengths. Commonly called a barrier filter. Emission filters are colored
glass or interference filters and have the transmission properties of a
bandpass or long-pass filter.

Emission spectrum. In fluorescence, the
spectrum of wavelengths emitted by an atom or molecule after excitation by a
light or other radiation source. Typically, the emission spectrum of a dye
covers a spectrum of wavelengths longer than the corresponding excitation
spectrum.

Epi-illumination. A common method of
illumination in fluorescence microscopy, where the illuminator is placed on the
same side of the specimen as the objective lens, and the objective performs a
dual role as both a condenser and an objective. A dichroic mirror is placed in
the light path to reflect excitatory light from the lamp toward the specimen
and transmit emitted fluorescent wavelengths to the eye or camera.

Excitation filter. In fluorescence
microscopy, the first element in a fluorescence filter cube and the filter that
produces the exciting band of wavelengths from a broadband light source such as
a mercury or xenon arc lamp. Commonly the excitation filter is a high-quality
bandpass interference filter.

Excitation spectrum. In fluorescence,
the spectrum of wavelengths capable of exciting an atom or a molecule to
exhibit fluorescence. Typically the excitation spectrum covers a range of
wavelengths shorter than the corresponding 
fluorescence emission spectrum.

Eyepiece or ocular. The second
magnifying lens of the microscope used to focus a real magnified image on the
retina of the real intermediate image produced by the objective. The added
magnification provided by the eyepiece increases the angular magnification of
the virtual image perceived by the eye. The typical range of eyepiece
magnifications is 5–25.

Eyepiece telescope. See Bertrand lens.

Field diaphragm. A variable diaphragm
located in or near the aperture plane of the light source that is used to
reduce the amount of stray light in the object image. Since the edge of the
diaphragm is conjugate with the object plane under conditions of Koehler
illumination, the field diaphragm is used as an aid in centering and focusing
the condenser lens.

Field planes. That set of conjugate focal
planes representing the field diaphragm, the object, the real intermediate
image, and the retina.

Flat-field correction. In image
processing, the procedure used to obtain a photometrically accurate image from
a raw image. A so-called dark frame containing bias and thermal counts is
subtracted from the raw image and from a “flat” or “background” image. The
dark-subtracted raw image is then divided by the dark-subtracted flatfield
image to produce the corrected image. With operation, all optical faults are
removed. The photometric relation of pixel values to photoelectron count is
also lost during division, although the relative amplitudes of pixel values
within an image are retained. See also Dark frame and Flat-field frame.

Fluorescence. The process by which a
suitable molecule, transiently excited by absorption of external radiation
(including light) of the proper energy, releases the energy as a
longer-wavelength photon. This process usually takes less than a nanosecond.

Fluorescence microscopy. A mode of
light microscopy whereby the wavelengths of fluo-rescence emission from an
excited fluorescent specimen are used to form an image.

Fluorite or semiapochromat lens.
Objective lenses made of fluorite or Ca2F, a highly transparent material of low
color dispersion. The excellent color correction afforded by simple fluorite
elements accounts for their alternative designation as semiapochromats.  The maximum numerical aperture is usually
limited at 1.3.

Fluorochrome. A dye or molecule capable
of exhibiting fluorescence.

Fluorophore. The specific region or
structural domain of a molecule capable of exhibiting fluorescence. Examples
include the fluorescein moiety in a fluoresceinconjugated protein and the
tetrapyrrole ring in chlorophyll.

Focal length. The distance along the
optic axis between the principal plane of a lens and its focal plane. For a
simple converging (positive) lens illuminated by an infinitely distant point
source of light, the image of the point lies precisely one focal length away
from the principal plane.

Focal ratio or f-number. The ratio of
the focal length of a lens to the diameter of its aperture.

Fovea. A 0.2–0.3 mm diameter spot in
the center of the macula on the retina that lies on the optic axis of the eye
and contains a high concentration of cone cell photoreceptors for color vision
and visual acuity in bright light conditions.

Frame averaging or Kalman averaging. In
electronic imaging, the method of averaging a number of raw image frames to
reduce noise and improve the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio
varies as the square root of the number of frames averaged.

Halo. In phase contrast microscopy,
characteristic contrast patterns of light or dark gradients flanking the edges
of objects in a phase contrast image. Halos are caused by the phase contrast
optical design that requires that the image of the condenser annulus and
objective phase plate annulus have slightly different dimensions in the back
focal plane of the objective.

Huygens’ principle. A geometrical
method used to show the successive locations occupied by an advancing
wavefront. An initial source or wavefront is treated as a point source or a
collection of point sources of light, each of which emits a spherical wave
known as a Huygens’wavelet. The surface of an imaginary envelope encompassing
an entire group of wavelet profiles describes the location of the wavefront at
a later time, t. Huygens’ principle is commonly used to describe the
distribution of light energy in multiple interacting wavefronts as occurs
during diffraction and interference. 

INKING THE
SPECIMEN

Cassette Dimensions

Inside
dimensions for a screened cassette are: 2.5 x 2.0 x 0.3cm

Inside
dimensions for a standard slotted cassette are: 3.0 x 2.5 x 0.3cm

Routine
tissue sections submitted in standard slotted cassettes should be no larger
than 2.5 x 1.5 x 0.3cm to allow for proper processing.

Screened Cassettes

• Distinct
advantages to using screened cassettes with small tissue biopsies;

1.Negates
the need to wrap samples, a big time saver.

2.Positive
seal created when properly closed.

3.Prevents
cross-contamination with other tissues during processing

Cost is a
major Disadvantage

For Small
Biopsies

• Number of
Pieces Each Container – To the best of your ability, give an accurate count.
Check the container (to include the lid!) and req. for a reference to the
number of pieces submitted.

Often
samples are fragmented. In this case, count the number of significant pieces,
give size(s), and add the descriptor “fragmented”. Additional Descriptors for
Number

• Additional
descriptors for number of pieces; Multiple(>10) – Give aggregate dimensions
with average size each. Do not submit more than 5 per cassette.  Myriad – too many to count (fragments), give
aggregate dimensions. Filter thru screened cassette.

• State the
size(s) of the tissue(s) received: Always stated in the context of mm.’s or
cm.’s Do not use inches. If you start the case using mm.’s, then use mm.’s
throughout. If you start the case with cm.’s, then use cm.’s throughout. Ex.
0.4cm or 4mm.  Whole cm.-Do not use
decimal point and zero.

•
Referencing the size(s) of the piece(s): If only one, self explanatory. If two
or more of the same size, then state as: __ mm. or cm. each. If two of
different sizes, then state as: __ and __ mm. or cm. each.

If three or
more with different sizes, then state as: ranging from __ mm. or cm. to __mm.
or cm.

Cores – • Whenever possible, give exact
count of tissue cores. Not necessary to give the diameter of the cores in most
cases, but always give the length of each core.

• Indicate
formalin exposure times with cores.

Biopsy Tissue Configurations

Irregular
/Fragmented/ Cores/Polypoid/Sessile/Pedunculated

Punch
Biopsies(Derms)- • Elipses(Derms)/• Shaves (Derms)

To Cut or Not To Cut!

• Most diagnostic
cases do not require additional cutting or inking.

• Polyps
>5mm should have their bases inked and be bisected.

• Punch
biopsies >4mm should also be bisected.

Tissue Sampling
Techniques – Small Biopsies & Triaging

Most Important Steps

• Patient
identification – Identification on the requisition must match the container(s).
This includes name. Accession number must match requisition, specimen container
and cassette.

Receiving/Accepting
Specimens

• If you
accept a specimen in the receiving area with incorrect information, it becomes
the laboratories problem to get it back to the sender for correction. Better to
refuse the specimen at the time of delivery.

• Never
process a specimen without a patient name. Never label the container yourself
with patient name or specimen source/type.

GROSS BENCH RULES

• Never have
more than one specimen out at a time.

• Close
containers when leaving the area.

• Don’t
leave small biopsies on the cutting board or on paper towels.

• Keep
cutting area neat, clean and organized.

• Keep
sharps in clear view, not under toweling etc. Clear cutting area of sharps when
leaving, and disinfect the cutting board and countertop.

• Beware of
“carry-over” from case to case

Specimens can be subclassified

Depending
on utility

Diagnostics
specimen

Routines –
Small and Large

Dermatology

Resections

Others

Depending
on Nature of handling:

Diagnostic

• Diagnostic
Cases: Small tissues being submitted to establish a diagnosis or monitor
status.

Typical features of biopsy tissues;

Small in size (minute to ~1cm)

Do not require orientation

Require counting when possible

Often are submitted in “toto”

Currettings

Currettage
specimens come as multiple tissue fragments admixed with; Blood or Blood Clot
/Mucous

Sample EMC
dictation – “Specimen consists of multiple fragments of pink/tan irregular soft
tissue admixed with mucous and blood having aggregate dimensions of _____ x
______ x _____cm which are submitted in toto in a single cassette, levels are
requested.

Grossing: Salient
points

ANSWER THE QUESTIONS BEFORE START

Question 1

• Are all
the parts to the case (specimen) present and is everything properly
identified/accessioned in a sequential fashion to match the requisition?

Question 2

• Do I have
adequate patient history?

Sources: –
Requisition form/ Call to Surgeon/Resident

Question3

• What is
the main specimen and why did they do this procedure?

Is this a
cancer case? Is this a non-cancer case?

Question 4

• What
information will be essential to properly sign-out this case?

Question 5

• What is
the minimum number of tissue cassettes required to adequately represent this
case  microscopically? Am I doing a
cancer staging?

Question 6

• Is there
additional pathology present in this case not previously known to the
surgeon/clinician?

Question 7

• Based on
the information derived from this gross examination, have I justified the
nature and extent of this surgical procedure for the surgeon/clinician?

CONNECTIVE
TISSUE STAINS

1.     Discuss the
CT stains10 mks(RGUHS)

2.     Routine
stains used in oral pathology-10 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Discuss
stains for mucin-10 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Discuss in
detail PAP staining- 20 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Metachromatic
dyes- -10 mks(RGUHS)

6.     Describe
the various staining procedures used for salivary gland lesions-10 mks(RGUHS)

7.     Discuss
common and differential stains used for the HP 
study of lesions affecting the oral tissues-20 mks(RGUHS)

8.     Metachromasia
and metachromatic dyes-10 mks(RGUHS)

9.     Discuss the
following stains:

a.     H and E

b.     PAS

c.      Van Geison

10.           
Enumerate and discuss the various methods available
the localization of glycoproteins in tissue section at the light microscopic
level- others

11.           
Discuss stains for pigments- others

12.           
Discuss the importance of VG, TB, Mallory’s and Alcian
Blue stain- April 1988

13.           
Demonstration of iron pigments- RGUHS 06-10 mks

14.           
Mordants and accelerators- cull

15.           
Various stains used in the diagnosis of salivary gland
lesions- coll

16.           
Stains for pigments- coll

17.           
Feulgen reactions- col

18.           
PAP- coll

DIAGNOSIS
OF BLOOD DISORDERS

1.     Lab
diagnosis of blood dyscriasis – 25 marks (MU)

2.     Role of
blood examination in oral disorders- 20 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Classify
anemias. Describe the peripheral blood and bone marrow picture in megaloblastic
anemia- 20 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Classify
anemia and discuss the lab diagnosis-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Discuss lab
diagnosis of anemia- 10 mks(RGUHS)

6.     Discuss the
role of blood examination in oral diseases- 20 mks(coll)

7.     Diagnosis
of spontaneous gingival bleeding-20 mks(coll)

8.     Advanced
techniques in blood chemistry-10mks(coll)

9.     Discuss the
preparation, use and staining characteristics of Leishmann stain-10 mks(RGUHS)

10.                       
Discuss the role of blood investigations in various
hematological disorders-10 mks(RGUHS)

11.                       
Importance of blood investigation in disease
process-10 mks(RGUHS)

DIAGNOSIS
OF INFECTIONS

1.     Discuss the
clinical features and lab investigations of candidal infection-25 mks(MU)

2.     Discuss the
clinical and laboratory diagnosis of viral diseases with dominant oral
manifestation-25 mks(MU)

3.     Discuss the
lab. Aids in the diagnosis of oral viral lesions-10 mks(RGUHS) 20 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Describe
the various lab tests in the diagnosis of AIDS-10 mks(rghus)

5.     Discuss the
pathogenesis and lab diagnosis of Group A streptococcal infection-20 mks(RGUHS)

6.     Discuss
laboratory diagnosis of candidiasis -20 mks(RGUHS)

7.     Discuss lab
diagnosis of HIV infections–10 mks(RGUHS)

8.     Lab
diagnosis of syphilis-10 mks(RGUHS)

9.     Discuss lab
diagnosis of periapical pathosis – others

10.           
lab investigations of oral bacterial lesions- SDM

11.           
lab diagnosis of oral spirochetal lesions-SDM

12.           
lab diagnosis of oral abscess- SDm

13.           
methods of diagnosing common mycotic lesions of the
oral cavity- April 1988

14.           
Tzanck test- coll

DIAGNOSIS
OF PREMALIGNANCIES AND ORAL MALIGNANCIES

1.     Serologic
markers in oral carcinoma- 25 mks (MU)

2.     Discuss histochemistry
of oral cancer- other

3.     Current
status of various techniques for the pathological diagnosis of oral
malignancies- others

4.     Discuss
various methods in the diagnosis of pre- malignant lesions- others

5.     Discuss the
role of IHC in detecting pre-cancerous and cancerous lesions- others

DIAGNOSIS
OF SKIN LESIONS

1.     Discuss the
various lab procedures in the diagnosis of VB lesions-20 mks(RGUHS)

2.     Role of IF
in the diagnosis of oral dermatological lesions-10 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Discuss the
diagnosis of VB lesions affecting the oral mucosa- others

FIXATION

1.     Fixatives
and fixation artifacts-(25 mks) MU

2.     Fixatives
used in oral tissues- 25 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Artifacts
in fixation-10 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Discuss the
merits and demerits of formalin-saline fixative-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Discuss fixatives–10
mks(RGUHS)

6.     Formaldehyde
as a fixative-10 mks(RGUHS)

7.     Cryofixation-
coll

HEMATOXYLIN
AND ITS COUNTERSTAINS

1.     Routine
stains used in oral pathology-10 mks(RGUHS)

2.     Discuss H
and E staining–10 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Discuss in
detail type of H along with principles of staining. Add a note on associated
artifacts- 20 mks

4.     Theories of
staining- 10 mks-

5.     Metachromasia-
10 mks

6.     Mordants
and accelerators- 10 mks

7.     Counterstains-10
mks

8.     Mounting
medias- 10 mks

9.     Discuss H N
E and its various modifications in H/P

MICROSCOPY

1.     Discuss the
immunofluorescent microscopes- 10 mks(RGUHS)

2.     Discuss
direct and indirect IF techniques and describe the microscope used- 20
mks(RGUHS)

3.     Discuss
importance of e m–20 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Microscope
-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     The
compound microscope-10 mks(coll)

6.     Phase
contrast microscope-10 mks(RGUHS)

7.     Discuss in
detail the principles and working of an electron microscope. Add a note on its
tissue preparation-20 mks(RGUHS)

8.     Write notes
on:

o   Principles
of fluorescence microscopy and its application in microbiology

9.     Fluorescence
microscopy and its applications- Mlore 94

10.           
Dark field microscope- RGUHS 06-10 mks

11.           
Discuss the structural and setting up and principle of
a light microscope with special emphasis on polarized microscope-coll

12.           
Electron microscope- coll

MICROTOMY

1.     Discuss the
various microtomes- 10 mks(RGUHS)

2.     The
microtome knife-10 mks(RGUHS)

3.     Double
embedding technique-10 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Discuss
microtomy-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Double
embedding- RGUHS 06-10 mks

6.     Microtome
knives-1997

7.     Faults and
remedies of paraffin wax sections- coll

8.     Paraffin
wax and its substitutes- coll

9.     Mounting
media- coll

MISCELLANEOUS
IN LAB

1.     Frozen
sections and their role in oral pathology- 25 mks ( MU)

2.     Discuss
FNAC2-5 mks ( MU)

3.     Describe
the procedure in the preparation of decalcified sections-10 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Role of
photography in oral pathology-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Discuss lab
techniques in genetics and their application in oral disease- 25 mks(RGUHS)

6.     Histochemistry
in the diagnosis of oral lesions- 100 mks(RGUHS)

7.     Discuss
FNAC -20 mks(RGUHS)

8.     Discuss
immunofluorescence-10 mks(RGUHS)

9.     Routine
stains used in oral pathology-10 mks(RGUHS)

10.                       
Discuss avidin- biotin in oral pathology-10 mks(RGUHS)

11.                       
Discuss in detail the currently used methods in decal
of calcified tissues and their advantages and disadvantages-20 mks(RGUHS)

12.                       
Discuss preparation of tissue for decalcification -10
mks- coll

13.                       
Discuss arneth count and its uses- 10 mks(RGUHS)

14.                       
Diagnosis of spontaneous gingival bleeding-20
mks(coll)

15.                       
Discuss the faults in cryostat techniques resulting in
poor results–10 mks(RGUHS)

16.                       
Discuss PCR–10 mks(RGUHS)

17.                       
Discuss exfoliative cytology–10 mks(RGUHS)

18.                       
Histochemistry in the diagnosis of oral lesions-100
mks(RGUHS)

19.                       
Discuss preparation of soft tissue for histological
studies-10 mks(RGUHS)

20.                       
Importance of biopsy in the diagnosis of pathological
lesions-20 mks(RGUHS)

21.                       
Ground section of tooth and its importance-10
mks(RGUHS)

22.                       
Enzyme analysis in gingival tissues-10 mks(coll)

23.                       
Biopsy artifacts-10 mks(coll)

24.                       
Biopsy-10 mks(coll)

25.                       
Oral biopsy procedures-10 mks(RGUHS)

26.                       
Gram’s stain-10 mks(RGUHS)

27.                       
Oral brush cytology-10 mks(RGUHS)

28.                       
Histopathology vs exfoliative cytology-10 mks(RGUHS)

29.                       
Discuss oral biopsies and preservatives in relation to
various staining methods- others

30.                       
Discuss your views on exfoliative cytology as an aid
to diagnosis of mucosal lesions- others

31.                       
Discuss the principle and scope of modern
histochemical techniques in the diagnosis of various oral lesions- others

32.                       
Discuss the lab methods helpful in the diagnosis of
oral disease- others

33.                       
Discuss the procedure of obtaining smears for
cytological examination and their staining- others

34.                       
Discuss the various hematological investigations in
the diagnosis of oral lesions- others

35.                       
Value of routine blood and urine investigations in
oral lesions- SDM

36.                       
Discuss biopsy- its indications and contraindications-
SDM

37.                       
Role of blood chemistry in oral lesions- SDM

38.                       
Diagnosis of salivary gland disorders- SDM

39.                       
Clinical and lab diagnosis of oral cysts- SDM

40.                       
Discuss differential staining in oral pathology- SDM

41.                       
Enzyme analysis in oral tissues-SDM

42.                       
Role of bacterial culture in endodontic therapy- SDm

43.                       
Describe lesions due to stress and antigenic
substances and give their lab tests- SDM

44.                       
Write about pre- operative lab tests-SDm

45.                       
Flow cytometric analysis-SDM

46.                       
Lab investigations of oral ulcers-GU

47.                       
Importance of oral exfoliative cytology- july 1991

48.                       
Importance of smear in OP- Oct 1989

49.                       
Museum techniques- coll

50.                       
Vital staining- coll

51.                       
Avidin- biotin techniques- coll

52.                       
Enzyme histochemistry- coll

53.                       
Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies- coll

54.                       
Antigen retrieval- coll

55.                       
Enzyme analysis and gingival tissue- coll

56.                       
PCR- coll

57.                       
Flow cytometric analysis- coll

58.                       
Gram s stain- coll

59.                       
Zn staining- coll

60.                       
DNA probes- coll

61.                       
Role of contact sensitivity tests in various oral
lesions- GUJ

62.                       
Lab investigations for an oral ulcer- GUJ

63.                       
Role of blood chemistry in bone lesions- GUJ

64.                       
Lab diagnosis of palatal lesions -GUJ

PROCESSING

1.     Discuss the
artifacts produced in histologic sections due to improper processing
techniques-20 mks(RGUHS)

2.      Paraffin infiltration in tissue processing- 10
mks(RGUHS)

3.     Automatic
tissue processing–10 mks(RGUHS)

4.     Discuss the
role of xylene as a clearing agent-10 mks(RGUHS)

5.     Clearing
agents-10 mks(RGUHS)

6.     Discuss in
detail principles of tissue processing- 20 mks

7.     Automatic
tissue processors- 1o mks coll

8.     Double
embedding tech- 10 mks coll

9.     Paraffin
wax and its substitutes- 10 mks coll

10.           
Discuss the merits and demerits of currently available
decal methods- others

11.           
Discuss the methods available for faster processing of
tissues for emergency histopathological diagnosis- others

12.           
Discuss tissue culture- others

            13.  Principles of tissue processing- RGUHS 06-20 mks

14.           
Microwave processing- coll

15.           
End point determination in decalcification procedures-
coll

PULP AND PERIAPICAL INFECTIONS

REGRESSIVE ALTERATIONS

SALIVARY GLANDS DISORDERS

SPREAD OF INFECTIONS

TMJ DISORDERS

TUMOURS OF ODONTOGENIC ORIGIN

MISCELLANEOUS IN ORAL PATHOLOGY

1.      Granulomatous
infections of the oral cavity- 100 mks (MU)

2.      Oro- facial
pain-10 mks

3.      Classify
giant cell lesions. Describe in detail CGCG- 20 mks

4.      Define
hamartoma. Discuss hamartomatous lesions of the oral cavity-10 mks

5.      Discuss the
DD of spindle cell tumours- 20 mks

6.      Discuss
giant cell lesions-10 mks

7.      Discuss verrucous
lesion of the oral cavity-20 mks

8.      Discuss
autoimmune disorders- 100 mks  25 mks

9.      Discuss
autoimmunity w.r.t. oral tissues- 20 mks 
–

10.  Discuss in
detail the VB lesions affecting the oral cavity- 20 mks

11.  Collagen
disorders- 10 mks

12.  Discuss the
histogenesis and CF of collagen diseases with special reference to those having
oral manifestations- 25 mks

13.  Coloured/
pigmented  lesions of the oral cavity/
oral lesions of altered colouration-25 mks  100 mks  20 mks

14.  Pathologic
calcifications-10 mks 

15.  Discuss the
metaplasia and dysplasia- -10 mks

16.  Enumerate
and describe the inflammatory conditions of the lips–10 mks

17.  Classify
white lesions of the oral cavity and discuss in detail dermatologic lesions-20
mks

18.  DD of
spindle cell tumours-20mks 

19.  Discuss in
detail round cell tumours-20 mks 

20.  Describe in
detail spindle cell tumors-20mks 

21.  Surgical
anatomy of cervical LN-10 mks 

22.  Recurrent  apthous stomatitis-10 mks

23.  Discuss
vascular lesions of the oral cavity-100 mks

24.  P53-10 mks

25.  Role of
photography in oral pathology-10 mks

26.  Hamartomas
of the oral cavity-10 mks

27.  Similarities
and differences b/w-

o   Ulcer and
erosion

o   Macule and
papule

o   Hematoma and
hamartoma

o   Necrosis
and apoptosis

o   Thrombosis
and embolism

o   Open and
closed face nuclei

o   Cilia and
flagella

o   Vermillion
border and vermillion zone

o   Grading and
staging

o   Primary and
secondary cuticle

o   Desmosome
and hemidesmosomes

o   Vasculogenesis
and angiogenesis

o   Transmitted
and reflected light

o   Basement
membrane and basal lamina

o   Carcinoma n
sarcoma

o   True and
pseudocapsule

o   Granulation
tissue and granuloma

o   Langhan’s
and Langerhan’s cell

o   Precancerous
lesion and condition

o   Pink tooth
and pink ‘s disease

o   Parakeratin
and orthokeratin

o   Keratinisation
and keratosis

o   Acidophilia
and basophilia

o   Cushing’s
syndrome and Cushing’s disease

o   Anomaly and
anomalad

28.  Definitions
and description of terminologies

o   Neoplasia

o   Prosoplasia

o   Metaplasia

o   Anaplasia

o   Dysplasia

o   Papule

o   Macule

o   Vesicle

o   Bulla

o   Nodule

o   Pustule

o   Choriostoma

o   Teratoma

o   Embolism

o   Karyohexxis

o   Karyolysis

o   Ergatoplasm

o   Transcription

o   Translation

o   Osteodentin

o   Cambium

o   Neurotropism

o   Inflammation

o   Cyst

o   Healing

o   Biopsy

o   Grossing

o   Ex. Cyto.

o   mutation

o   hypersensitivity

o   autoimmunity

o   rosette

o   denticles

o   cementicles

o   Autosomal D

o   AR

o   X-linked D

o   X-linked R

o   Chloroma

o   Dyskeratosis

o   Apocrine

o   Merocrine

o   Holocrine

o   Oral
pathology

o   Syndrome

o   Pyknosis

o   Amphophilia

29.  Discuss
conditions causing dryness of mouth- others

30.  Discuss
oral manifestations of nutritional deficiencies- others

31.  Enumerate
the causes of gingival bleeding- others

32.  Discuss the
most important lesions of  occupational
origin- others

33.  Write short
notes on epithelioma- others

34.  Discuss
Pathophysiology of keratinisation-others

35.  Describe
keratinizing lesions of the oral mucosa- others short notes

36.  Describe
lesions of the palate- others

37.  Radiolucent
lesions of the jaws- others

38.  Discuss
stress disorders of the oral cavity and the various lab tests used in their
diagnosis-others

39.  Discuss
normal structures of the oral cavity mistaken for disease process- others

40.  Discuss
dystrophic oral lesions- others

41.  Role of
diet and nutrition in the prevention of oral diseases- others

42.  Oral white
lesions- others

43.  Genetic
diseases of the oral cavity-others

44.  Hamartomatous
lesions of the oral cavity- others

45.  Discuss
cemental lesions- others

46.  Discuss
oral tissue neoplasms in children- others

47.  Discuss the
etiology, pathology and DD of pain in the max molar region- others

48.  Describe
the immunological and allergic  with
reference to oral cavity-    

49.  Oral mucosal
lesions immunology-    

50.  Describe
atrophic lesions of the lingual mucosa-    

51.  DD of jaw
bone dysplasia-    

52.  Discuss the
heritable disorders affecting oral lesions-    

53.  DD of R/L
lesions of the jaws-    

54.  Verrucous
lesions of the oral cavity-    

55.  Pathogenesis
and histology of collagen diseases-    

56.  Describe
cherubism and other intra-osseous giant cell lesions-    

57.  Discuss
Pathophysiology of keratinisation-    

58.  Discuss
dystrophic oral lesions-               

59.  DD of
palatal lesions/ swellings

60.  Discuss
fibromatous neoplastic lesions of the jaws-    

61.  Diagnostic
measures in angle of mandible swellings-    

62.  Describe
hyperplastic oral soft tissue lesions-     

63.  Describe
lesions due to stress and antigenic substances and give their lab tests-    

64.  DD of
papillary atrophy of the tongue-    

65.  Describe
osteolytic lesions of the jaw-  

66.  Dental
lesions characterized by loss of calcified tissue-    

67.  Discuss
chronic jaw lesions-  

68.  Describe Apthous
ulcers-    

69.  What are
the chemical disorders? Give their oral manifestations and lab tests-    

70.  Discuss
hemorrhagic cysts of the jaws-  

71.  Oral
syndromes- GU

72.  Iatrogenic
diseases-    

73.  Keratotic
lesions or oro-facial pain- july 1991

74.  Describe
the microscopic changes seen in leukoplakia, lichen planus and iron deficiency
anemia. Describe the mechanisms briefly which may be responsible for the
changes you have just described-April 1988

75.  Cystic
lesions of the maxilla- April 1988

76.  DD of
swellings at the angle of mandible- oct 1989

77.  Prion
proteins and prion diseases- RGUHS 06-10 mks

78.  Vasoproliferative
lesions of the oral mucosa- coll

79.  Myofibroblastic
tumours of the oral cavity- coll

80.  Write a
note on pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia- coll

81.  Major
Apthous ulcers- coll

82.  Diagnostic
approach to chronic non healing ulcers- coll

83.  Diagnostic
approach to parotid swelling- coll

84.  Vascular
lesions- coll-

85.  Chromatid
exchange- GUJ

ORAL ASPECTS OF METABOLIC DISEASES

DISEASES OF THE PERIODONTIUM

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL INJURIES OF
THE ORAL CAVITY

PREMALIGNANCY AND MALIGNANT
EPITHELIAL TUMOURS

1.      Describe carcinogenesis
with reference to oral  cancer- 25 mks (
MU)

2.      Discuss the
clinical, radiographic and H/P features of OSCC affecting oral tissues – 20 mks

3.      What are
the concepts of premalignancy? Discuss the various premalignant conditions and
lesions- 20 mks

4.      Role of
beta carotene in oral neoplasia-10 mks

5.      Discuss
metastatic tumours of jaw bones-25 mks

6.      Histologic
variants in leukoplakia-10 mks

7.      Malignant
melanoma-10 mks

8.      Metastatic
tumours of the jaw-10 mks

9.      Discuss etiology
of oral carcinoma- 10 mks

10.  Discuss in
brief recent advances in the diagnosis of premalignant lesions-10 mks

11.  Mention the
routes of metastasis and write in detail on the metastatic tumours of the
mandible- 10 mks

12.  OSMF-100mks

13.  Tumour
markers-10 mks

14.  Oral tissue
neoplasms in children-10 mks

15.  Tobacco
chewing and oral lesions- 10 mks

16.  Discuss
recent concepts in malignancy grading systems for OSCC–20 mks

17.  Discuss
carcinogenesis–10 mks

18.  Write on malignant
melanoma–10 mks

19.  Clinical
and histological variants of leukoplakia–10 mks

20.  Discuss
epithelial dysplasia–10 mks

21.  Discuss the
recent advances in the evaluation of oral malignancy-20 mks

22.  Role of
AgNORs in oral pre- malignancy-10 mks

23.  Discuss the
advanced methods in the evaluation of 
oral precancerous and cancerous lesions-20 mks

24.  What is a
nevus? Describe the types, clinical features and HP of various oral nevi-10 mks

25.  Role of
oncogenic viruses in oral neoplasia-10 mks

26.  Advanced
diagnostic and prognostic tools in oral cancer-20 mks 

27.  Immunology
of oral cancer-100 mks

28.  Discuss
carcinogenesis with relevance to oral cancer- others

29.  Discuss
Etiopathogenesis and immunological alterations in OSMF- others

30.  Describe
premalignant lesions of the oral cavity- others short notes

31.  Discuss
histopathological changes in lesions occurring adjacent to cancer- others

32.  Discuss
histopathological differentiation of oral cancer and precancer- others

33.  Discuss the
histopathological changes occurring in the lesions adjacent to cancer- others

34.  Discuss
cemental lesions- others

35.  Discuss  histopathological differentiation of oral
cancer and precancer- others

36.  Describe
histology of the dorsal surface of tongue and changes seen in leukoplakia-    

37.  Describe
the immunopathology of periodontal disease and oral cancer.-  

38.  Describe in
detail the spread of malignancy-    

39.  Short notes
on chemical carcinogenesis-  

40.  Discuss
OSMF with special reference to its premalignant nature-    

41.  Write about
oral carcinogens-    

42.  Role of
virus in oral cancers- RGUHS 06-20 mks

43.  Staging of
OSCC- RGUHS 06-10 mks

44.  Oncogenes-
RGUHS 06-10 mks

45.  AGNORs

46.  Methods of
prognostic evaluation of premalignant lesions and carcinomas-1997

47.  Adenocarcinomas- 

CONNECTIVE TISSUE NEOPLASMS

1.       Discuss the neoplastic lesions of bone of CT
origin- 20 mks

2.      Classify
nerve tissue tumours and discuss in detail neurilemmoma-10 mks  

3.      What are
the neoplasias of B cell origin? Discuss in detail multiple myeloma-10 mks  

4.      Discuss
lymphomas- 25 mks

5.      Discuss
metastatic tumours of jaw bones-25 mks

6.      Giant cell
tumour of the bone-10 mks

7.      Osteogenic
sarcoma-10 mks  10 mks 

8.      Metastatic
tumours of the jaw-10 mks  25mks

9.      Discuss
tumours of nerve tissue origin-20 mks

10.  Tumour
markers-10 mks

11.  Oral tissue
neoplasms in children-10 mks

12.  Discuss
NHLs of the oral cavity–10 mks

13.  Discuss giant
cell tumour of the mandible–10 mks

14.  Discuss
giant cell tumour–10 mks

15.  Discuss
lymphomas-25mks

16.  What is osteosarcoma?
describe its types and HP- 10 mks

17.  Define
leukemia. Describe the clinical features and HP of monocytic leuk-10 mks

18.  Discuss
vasoproliferative lesions of the oral mucosa-20 mks 

19.  Myofibroblastic
tumours-10 mks 

20.  Variants of
lipoma-10 mks  with pathogenesis

21.  Neurilemmoma-10
mks 

22.  Pathogenesis
and variants of lipoma-10 mks 

23.  Ewing ‘s
sarcoma-10 mks 

24.  DD of
spindle cell tumours- 20 mks, 100 mks

25.  Hodgkin’s
vs NHL-10 mks- coll

26.  Chondrosarcoma-
10 mks-coll

27.  Discuss the
neoplastic lesions of the jaw bones of CT origin- others

28.  Discuss the
neoplastic lesions of jaw bones of CT origin- others

29.  Discuss the
squamous odontogenic origin-others

30.  Describe in
detail the spread of malignancy-    

31.  Discuss
Burkitt’s lymphoma-     

32.  Describe
lymph node tumours-    

33.  Rhabdomyosarcoma-
coll

CYSTS OF ODONTOGENIC ORIGIN

1.      Discuss
odontogenic cysts- 20 mks

2.      Describe
the histologic features and discuss the pathogenesis of dentigerous cyst- 20
mks

3.      Discuss
lesions of the jaw that contain dentin like material-10 mks

4.      Radicular
cyst-10 mks

5.      Define ,
classify cysts of the oral cavity and discuss in detail OKC- 25 mks

6.      Discuss
pathogenesis of radicular cyst in correlation to H/P- 25 mks 

7.      Ghost cell
containing lesions-10 mks

8.      OKC as a
cyst and a benign neoplasm- 10 mks

9.      Cyst fluid
as a diagnostic marker-10 mks 

10.  Lesions of the
jaw that contain dentin like material-10 mks 

11.  Discuss
cemental lesions-20 mks

12.  Discuss
OKC–10 mks

13.  Define a
cyst. Discuss the etiology, pathogenesis and CF and HP of a periapical cyst-10
mks

14.  Pathogenesis
of RC-10 mks 

15.  Classify
cysts of the jaw. Discuss dentigerous cyst in detail- 20 mks  

16.  Describe
cystic lesions of the maxilla- others

17.  Discuss
pathogenesis and diagnosis of dentigerous cysts- others

18.  Discuss
histopathological variations in OKC- others

19.  Discuss
cemental lesions- others

20.  Clinical
and lab diagnosis of oral cysts-    

21.  Importance
of cystic epithelium-    

22.  Pathogenesis
of dentigerous cyst-     94

23.  Role of
AGNORs of cyst- coll

24.  Pathogenesis
of radicular cyst in correlation with H/p coll

DENTAL CARIES

1.      Microbiology
of dental caries- 10 mks, 20 mks

2.      Microbiology
of dental caries- 25 mks  

3.      Immunology
of dental caries-10 mks

4.      Discuss
salivary caries activity tests-10 mks

5.      Etiopathogenesis
of dental caries–20 mks

6.      Discuss the
theories and etiology of dental caries–20 mks

7.      Discuss the
current views in the Etiopathogenesis of DC-10 mks

8.      Caries
susceptibility tests-10 mks

9.      Caries
activity tests-10 mks 

10.  Discuss
bacterial plaque an its relationship to dental caries- others

11.  Discuss in
detail pathology of surface caries- others

12.  Discuss
pathogenesis and histopathology of incipient carious lesions- others

13.  Discuss the
morphological and cultural characteristics of lactobacillus and discuss the
role played by it in dental caries- others

14.  Discuss the
trends of recent histological research into the initial lesion of dental
caries- others

15.  Critically
evaluate the mechanism of early enamel caries as revealed by modern research
technique- others

16.  Describe
the mechanism of early enamel caries-    

17.  Etiology of
dental  caries-    

18.  Histopathology
of DC- RGUHS 06-10 mks

19.  Immunologic
approach to the prevention of dental caries-1996

20.  Morphological
and cultural characteristics of Lactobacillus- GUJ

DERAMTOLOGICAL DISORDERS

1.      Discuss the
histopathology and immunopathology of pemphigus group of diseases- 20 mks

2.      Discuss
lichen planus in detail-20 mks 

3.      Paraneoplastic
pemphigus-10 mks 

4.      Graft vs
host reaction- 10 mks 

5.      IHC of oral
dermatoses- 10 mks 

6.      Syndromes
related to genodermatoses- 10 mks(coll )

7.      Enumerate
white lesions of the oral cavity and discuss in detail OLP- 25 mks

8.      Immunologic
techniques in the diagnosis of PV–10 mks

9.      Classify
white lesions of the oral cavity and discuss in detail dermatologic lesions-20
mks

10.  Discuss the
oral manifestations of pemphigus. Add a note on its IF. 10 mks

11.  Pemphigus
and pemphigoid-10 mks 

12.  Vesiculobullous
lesions-100 mks

13.  Pemphigus
vulgaris-10 mks

14.  Muco-cutaneous
lesion-100 mks

15.  Lupus Erythematosus-
   

16.  Describe
various muco dermatologic lesions-  

17.  Oral
genodermatoses-100mks RGUHS 06-

18.  Histopathogenesis
of OLP- 1997

19.  IHC of oral
genodermatoses- coll

DEVELOPMENTAL DISTURBANCES

DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS

1.      Discuss FD-
25 mks(MU)

2.      Fibro-osseous
lesions- 100 mks(MU)

3.      Enumerate
the non- neoplastic lesions of bone and describe in detail Paget’s disease-10
mks

4.      Discuss the
pathogenesis , clinical features and radiological findings of FO lesions- 25
mks

5.      Discuss the
histopathological DD of FO of jaw lesions-10 mks

6.      Fibro-
osseous lesions- 10 mks ,20 mks

7.      Discuss FD
of jaws–10 mks

8.      Cemento-osseous
dysplasia-10 mks

9.      Describe
pathogenesis and recent concepts of OI-20 mks-coll

10.  Osteogenic
sarcoma-10 mks-coll

11.  Radiographic
appearances of bone lesions involving the oral cavity- 10 mks- coll

12.  Cherubism-
10 mks-coll

13.  Osteoradionecrosis-
10 mks-coll

14.  Paget’s
disease- 10 mks coll

15.  Vanishing
bone disease- 10 mks coll

16.  Discuss the
different aspects of cherubism and other intra- osseous giant cell
lesions-others

17.  Diseases of
the bone-     94(100mks)

18.  Classify FO
lesions. Detail- FD and OF- coll

19.  Paget’s
-coll

20.  Osteogenesis
imperfecta- coll

21.  Cherubism-
coll

DISEASES OF NERVES AND MUSCLES

DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY

HEALING OF THE ORAL TISSUES

DISORDERS OF BLOOD

INFECTIONS

1.      Role of
virus in oral lesions- 100 mks (MU)

2.      Discuss the
microbial flora of the oral cavity and in AIDS-25 mks ( MU)

3.      Candidiasis-
10 mks

4.      TB- 10 mks

5.      Discuss
viral lesions of oral tissues and the diagnostic principle of the same-25 mks

6.      Discuss
oral histoplamosis-10 mks

7.      Oral
manifestations of AIDS- 10 mks

8.      Opportunistic
oral infections- 10 mks

9.      Oral
lesions in TB–10 mks

10.  Oral
mycotic infections-20 mks

11.  Discuss
herpetic and herpetiform lesions of the oral cavity- others

12.  Define
viruses. Discuss the phenomenon of tissue reaction to viral  infections- others

13.  Write short
notes on gumma- others

14.  Discuss the
systemic bacterial and protozoal diseases with oral manifestations- others

15.  Short
notes- tuberculous Osteomyelitis- others

16.  Discuss
clinical and H/P aspects of candidiasis- others

17.  Candidiasis
with investigative procedures to confirm the lesions- others

18.  Describe
oral spirochetal lesions and their lab diagnosis-    

19.  Consequences
of focal and systemic infections-    

20.  Describe
protozoan parasites and their oral lesions-    

21.  What is a
virus? lesions associated with HSV-     94

22.  Molluscum
contagiosum- coll

RGUHS – Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences; GU – Gujarat University; MU – Mangalore University; Coll – Other deemed universities; Mks – Mark Questions

Curvature of field. An aberration of a
lens that causes the focal plane to be curved instead of flat.

Dark-field microscopy. A mode of light
microscopy in which 0th order undeviated light is excluded from the objective,
and image formation is based solely on the interference of waves of diffracted
light. Typically, dark-field optics are obtained by illuminating the object
with a steeply pitched cone of light produced with a transparent annulus in an
otherwise opaque mask at the condenser front aperture. A relatively small NA
objective is used so that undeviated light does not enter the objective,
allowing only diffracted waves to enter the objective and form an image.

Depth of field. The thickness of the
optical slice through a specimen that is in focus in the real intermediate
image. The thickness measurement is dependent on geometric and wave-optical
parameters.

Depth of focus. The thickness of the
image at the real intermediate image plane in the microscope. Like depth of
field, the focus thickness depends on geometric and wave optical parameters.

Destructive interference. In wave
optics and image formation, the condition where the summation of the E vectors
of constituent waves results in an amplitude less than that of the
constituents. For interference to occur, a component of one wave must vibrate
in the plane of the other.

Dichroic mirror. In fluorescence
microscopy, an interference filter that exhibits a sharply defined transition
between transmitted and reflected wavelengths. When inclined at a 45° angle
with respect to incident light beams, the mirror reflects short excitation
wavelengths through 90° onto the specimen and transmits long fluorescent
wavelengths to the real intermediate image plane. A dichroic mirror is one of
the three filters contained in a fluorescence filter set.

Dichroism. The property exhibited by
linear polarizing films and certain naturally occurring minerals, whereby
incident wavelengths are differentially absorbed, causing the object to appear
in two different colors depending on the angle of view and the orientation of
incident waves. The phenomenon reflects the difference between the absorption
curves for chromophores oriented in different directions in the dichroic
object.

Differential interference contrast (DIC)
microscopy. A mode of light microscopy employing dual-beam interference
optics that transforms local gradients in optical path length in an object into
regions of contrast in the object image. Also referred to as Normarski optics
after the name of its inventor, George Nomarski. The specimen is illuminated by
myriad pairs of closely spaced coherent rays that are generated by a
crystalline beam splitter called a Wollaston prism. Members of a ray pair
experience different optical path lengths if they traverse a gradient in
refractive index in a phase object. Optical path differences become translated
into amplitude differences (contrast) upon interference in the image plane. DIC
images have a distinctive relief like, shadow-cast appearance.

Diffracted wave. In phase contrast and
other modes of interference microscopy, waves that become deviated from the
path of 0th-order (background) waves at the object. Diffracted waves can be
shown to be retarded in phase by 1⁄4 wavelength from the background wave by
vector analysis. Diffracted waves combine with background waves through
interference in the image plane to generate resultant particle (P) waves of
altered amplitude that are perceived by the eye. See also Particle wave and
Surround wave.

Diffraction. The bending or breaking up
of light that occurs when waves interact with objects, much in the way that
waves of water bend around the edge of a log or jetty. Light waves that become
scattered upon interacting with an object (diffracted waves) follow paths that
deviate from the direction followed by waves that do not interact with the
specimen (nondiffracted or undeviated waves).